Amitabha
Unknown Artist
19th Century
China
White and mottled green nephrite
92.103.14a,b
Religious images in jade are relatively rare, and this figure of the Buddha Amitabha in contemplation makes an unusual use of contrasting colors of jade. When the Manchus overthrew the Ming in 1644, they adopted the Tibetan style of Buddhism as the official religion. During the eighteenth century especially, a great deal of state funding was directed toward temple construction and monastic renovation.
This image was not likely commissioned for a temple, but rather a domestic altar for the court. The Buddha is shown here in dhyana mudra, the pose of deep contemplation which led to his enlightenment. The figure is seated on a stylized lotus pedestal, a Buddhist symbol for spiritual purity. The enframement in green jade is an open nimbus which takes the form of a Tibetan-style stupa. The inscription is in praise of Amitabha, the Buddha of Infinite Light, and states that the jade was commissioned by the court.
Album with scenes from The Tale of Genji
Unknown Japanese
17th century
Album with 20 leaves; ink, color, and gold on paper
2015.79.41
This album includes 20 scenes from The Tale of Genji, but not in order. The scene at right is one of the most frequently illustrated scenes from chapter 3, in which two young women and a young boy are shown indoors playing a board game by lamplight, while Genji himself spies on them from the veranda. Genji is in pursuit of one of these girls, Utsusemi, who ends up running away after catching the scent of Genji’s perfume on the breeze. His pursuit halted in this way, Genji instead has sex with Utsusemi’s companion.
Amida, the Buddha of Infinite Light
Unknown Japanese
early 12th century
Japan
Japanese cypress with polychrome and gold
2015.79.256a-c
Amida Nyorai, the Buddha of Limitless Light, is the salvific central figure of Pure Land Buddhist teachings. Believers who call on the name of Amida will be greeted by him and his retinue at the moment of death and transported to the western Pure Land. In this sculpture, which reflects the influence of the master Japanese sculptor Jōchō (d. 1057), Amida is seated with legs crossed in the full lotus position. He joins the index fingers and thumbs of both hands in a mudra (sacred gesture) of welcoming. Traces of the gold foil that once fully covered Amida’s skin and the green, red, and black pigments of his clothing remain.
Amoghasiddhi
13th-14th century
Brass with pigment, gilding, and silver inlay
99.124.1
A devotee might pray to Amoghasiddhi to overcome envy and greed, attempting to transform these emotions into the wisdom of accomplishment. One of the Five Cosmic Buddhas of the cardinal directions (north, south, east, and west), Amoghasiddhi presides over the celestial realm of the north. He is associated with the color green (his partner is Green Tara) and with the elements of wind and air. As if receiving a breeze, Amoghasiddhi’s sash billows while his right hand gracefully gestures “have no fear.”
Backdrop for an Enshrined Buddha
c. 1850
Myanmar (Burma)
Wood, gilt, gesso, glass
91.68
Box and assorted implements for the incense game
Unknown Japanese
17th-18th century
Wood, lacquer, gold; metal utensils
Japan
2015.79.398.1a,b
Incense played a prominent role in aristocratic culture of ancient Japan. Aristocrats were expected to know how to mix aromatic imported woods with other plant products and compound them into burnable, fragrant incense. Popular ingredients included aloe, sandalwood, frankincense, pine, lily, cinnamon, and patchouli, among others. In the 1400s, this artful appreciation of incense developed further into the so-called Way of Fragrance, or kōdō, along with the Way of Tea (sadō or chadō) and the Way of Flowers (kadō, better known in the West as ikebana). In incense-based games, played with the set displayed here, participants take turns smelling, appreciating, and guessing the ingredients of a certain type of incense. In one variation of the game called “Genji Incense” or Genjikō, types of incense or combinations thereof hint at chapters of The Tale of Genji.
Brush Washer
16th-17th century
China
Pale green nephrite with brown markings
92.103.5
Vessels distinguished by soft, natural forms and high relief carvings are characteristic of the Ming period (1368-1644). Waterpots, brush holders, and other necessary utensils of the scholar's table often took the form of a lotus, citrus fruit, or as here, ling-chih, an auspicious fungus meant to prolong life. Plants and animals symbolic of good fortune, long used as decorative themes in Chinese art, were immensely popular during the Ming dynasty. This vessel has two water receptacles; since gradated tones of ink are used in Chinese painting and calligraphy, a variety of containers are necessary to wash brushes and dilute ink explaining the double bowl in this washer.
Chorten
13th century
Tibet
Brass
2000.31.7
This portable chorten (Tibetan for stupa, a domed structure that contains relics) can be understood as a three-dimensional mandala. The dome-shaped base derives from the hemispherical burial mounds erected over the relics of the Buddha. These architectural structures sprinkle the landscape of the Himalayas as representations of the Buddha, his teachings, and a microcosm of the universe. It is said the first mandala was created when devotees walked a pathway around the stupa, forming concentric circles along which they physically and mentally ascended toward the center— the cardinal axis representing enlightenment. On this shrine, which would have likely been donated to a monastery, the tower of discs represents the 13 stages of enlightenment in the Kadem Order of Tibetan Buddhism. The crescent moon and sun symbolize the dissolution of opposites, a critical aspect of wisdom.
Daiitoku Myōō, the Wisdom King of Awe-Inspiring Power
Unknown Japanese
second half 13th century
Japan
Wood with metal, polychrome, gilding, and inlaid crystal eyes
2013.29.1a-g
Daiitoku Myōō is meant to be intimidating. He is also known as the Wisdom King of Awe-Inspiring Power, and it is his job to defeat evil. This Buddhist guardian deity’s intense rage is manifested by his wild appearance: six legs, six arms carrying an assortment of weapons, and six glaring faces backed by a halo of flames. Daiitoku Myōō does not act alone but is one of the Five Great Wisdom Kings (Godai Myōō). Four of the Wisdom Kings guard the cardinal directions surrounding the central fifth king. Each of them also guards its own buddha. Since Daiitoku occupies the west, he is associated with the wrath of Amida Buddha, whose abode is a paradise known as the Western Pure Land.
Envelope and seven prints of the set Genji Picture
Contest (Genji e-awase):
ADULT CONTENT WARNING
Edo period (1603-1868)
Japan
1860s Woodblock prints (nishiki-e); ink and color on paper
Four-string biwa
Unknown Japanese
19th century
Wood with lacquer and gold
Japan
14.101
Though its strings are now missing, this lute originally had four strings, making it a biwa, a plucked, stringed instrument with origins in Persia. It was transmitted to China (where it is known as pipa) around 2,000 years ago and to Japan by the 700s The oldest illustrations of The Tale of Genji that survive today, which were created around 1130, include a picture of one of the novel’s main characters, Prince Niou, playing a similar lute next to his pregnant wife, Nakanokimi.
Guardian Lions
8th century
China
Limestone conglomerate (puddingstone)
2008.23.1
The lion is not indigenous to China, but with the importation of Buddhism from India along the "silk road", Chinese artisans adopted the Indian practice of using the lion to symbolize the Buddha Sakyamuni. In addition, the inherent power and strength of the lion led to its being featured as a symbolic protector of the Buddhist sacred law and pairs of guardian lions were used to flank entrances to cave temples, Buddhist altars, and thrones as well as tomb doorways.
In pre-Tang China, most sculpted lions were highly stylized, static, housecat-like characterizations of the "king of beasts." Court records show however that in 635 the Chinese emperor was presented a real lion as a tribute gift from Samarkand. Direct observation of an actual lion by artists dramatically changed their sculptural presentations to the more realistic, animated, and powerful creatures depicted in this expressive pair of "puddingstone" lions dating from the high Tang period (8th century).
Helmet with ornament bearing seed syllable for Fudō Myōō
Unknown Japanese
17th century
Japan
Iron, gilt copper, deerskin, silk, and lacquer
2015.79.438a-e
With its wide-spreading laced neck guard (shikoro) and curving face protectors (fukikaeshi), this helmet is typical of the type used with Japan's classic armor for mounted warriors, oyoroi, constructed by lacing metal or leather pieces together. The heraldic front pieces of this example are particularly dramatic, with extremely long kuwagata (stylized long blades). The central disk is emblazoned with the Sanskrit characters for the Buddhist deity Fudo Myo-o, "the immovable king of brightness." Thus, the owner of this helmet hoped that the fierce implacability of this demigod would accompany him into battle.
Jade Mountain Illustrating the Gathering of Scholars at the Lanting Pavilion
1790
Light green jade
China
92.103.13
The Qing dynasty emperor Qianlong (r. 1736–95) commissioned this jade boulder, apparently the largest piece of historic carved jade outside of China. It depicts a literary gathering of scholar-officials at Lanting, the Orchid Pavilion described in “Lanting jixu” (Preface to the Poems Composed at the Orchid Pavilion), by Wang Xizhi (303–361), recognized as the greatest calligrapher of the Far East. The prose itself is carved on the front. Wang Xizhi, together with forty-one other renowned scholar-officials, gathered at Lanting and engaged in a drinking contest: wine cups were floated down a small winding creek as the men sat along its banks. Whenever a cup stopped, the man closest to the cup was required to drink it and write a poem. In the end, twenty-six of the participants composed thirty-seven poems. Emperor Qianlong’s own poem appears carved on the reverse.
Makora, one of the Twelve Divine Generals
Unknown Japanese
early 14th century
Japan
Wood with traces of pigment and inlaid crystal
2013.31.40a,b
Many Buddhist deities are believed to be accompanied by groups of assorted attendants and guardians. In devotional paintings or in sculptural groupings installed on Buddhist altars, they appear beside or around the main deity. This fierce-looking figure is Makora, one of twelve protective deities known as the Twelve Divine Generals (jūni shinshō) who accompany the Healing Buddha, Yakushi Nyorai, to whom the faithful pray for release from suffering. Each of the Divine Generals is said to represent one of twelve vows made by the Healing Buddha to heal the sick and ignorant and guide them on the path to enlightenment.
Page from the Koran
c. 1350
Egypt
Ink, opaque watercolor, and gold on paper
51.37.21
This exquisite manuscript page typifies the artistic and technical virtuosity accorded illuminated books during the Mamluk period (1250-1517). By the 13th century, more cursive writing styles had replaced kufic as the preferred Koranic script. The main body of the text is written in a cursive style commonly called muhaqqaq script, characterized by tall, slender verticals and sweeping sublinear strokes. The chapter heading, framed in gold and vegetal ornamentation, is in thuluth script.
Sultans and amirs commissioned mostly large Korans for the specific mosques and religious foundations they endowed. Multi-volume Korans were popular during the Mamluk period, when standard formats included large single volumes, double volumes, and smaller thirty-volume sets. The scribe, or calligrapher, enjoyed the greatest prestige among the several Muslim artists responsible for producing books.
Pleasure Boat
18th century
China
White jadeite
92.103.10a-f
This finely detailed pleasure boat is carved in perfect unison with its rosewood base, which captures the water flowers and aquatic birds and crustaceans of the lotus pond on which the craft is meant to sail. The great pleasure gardens of the Qing dynasty, such as the Summer Palace in Beijing, included extensive planted water courses that accommodated the boating parties of the aristocracy. This exquisite carving shows a group of boaters complete with potted plants and wicker picnic hampers. With its aristocratic theme, flawless white nephrite, and superb craftsmanship, it epitomizes the decorative tastes of the 1700s. The inscription carved along the front of the boat, Qianlong yuwan (For the amusement of the emperor Qianlong), indicates that the boat was created in an imperial workshop.
Red-and-blue-laced Suit of Armor from the Kii Tokugawa Family
Suit by Unknown Japanese; Artist: Helmet by Saotome Iechika
mid 17th century
Japan
Iron, leather, lacquer, silk, wood, gold leaf and powder, bear fur
2009.60a-s
This elaborate suit of Japanese armor is a lightweight, form-fitting type designed to protect the body in close combat: with a face mask, forearm sleeves, thigh and shin guards, and bear-fur boots, every inch of the wearer’s body is protected. Its ownership can be traced to the Kii branch of the Tokugawa family, which ruled Japan for nearly 250 years, and it may have been made for Tokugawa Yorinobu, the founder of the branch.
The craftspeople who constructed the armor used the utmost care, using elaborate and expensive materials. The small plates on the skirt consist of lacquered leather covered in gold foil and then covered in lacquer again, creating a metallic sheen. Creatures appear throughout the armor. The Chinese Four Guardians—the Azure Dragon, Vermilion Bird, White Tiger, and Black Tortoise—provided protection to the wearer. The praying mantis on the helmet suggested what the wearer of this armor would do to his enemies: cut them down.
Ritual Dagger (Phurba)
1403-1424
China
Gilt bronze
2000.148
The phurba is used in Lamaist Buddhism during rites to exorcise evil influences. Based on a tent peg, the ritual weapon is employed to pin down demons harmful to Buddhist thought in the process of taming and teaching them.
The early Ming emperors, especially Yongle (r. 1403-24) and Xuande (r. 1426-35), sought the services of Tibetan lamas during their reigns and a great many missions between China and Tibet involved the mutual exchange of Buddhist images and ritual objects. Made in the imperial workshops for ceremonial use in the Chinese court or as tribute, this phurba has three blades terminating in three heads of Makara, an auspicious mythological creature. The dagger is surmounted by three grinning masks of the deity Darje Phurba each wearing a crown of three seated Buddhas.
Sarcophagus of Prince Yuan Mi
524
Black limestone
China
46.23.1a-d
This sarcophagus, as well as the epitaph cover and the accompanying tablet, were reportedly recovered from a tomb located in Lijia’ao village, northwest of Luoyang in Henan province. Together they document an important stage in the development of the pictorial tradition in Chinese art. Buddhist, Confucian, and Daoist imagery intermingle within a landscape setting that anticipates the later genre of landscape painting in Chinese art. Along each side of the sarcophagus, amid trees and mountains, five scenes illustrate the Confucian virtue of filial piety, or respect for one’s parents, elders, and ancestors. Daoist and Buddhist imagery is prominent in the heavenly scene above: immortals riding on dragons, phoenixes, and birds.
During the early sixth century in northern China, it was common to place stone memorial tablets in the tombs of the nobility. The memorial tablet bears an inscription dated to 524 and includes a biography and a eulogy to Yuan Mi (d. 523), whose sarcophagus this is. Yuan Mi was the grandson of Emperor Xianwen (r. 466–70) of the Northern Wei dynasty and served as governor of Qizhou. He received the posthumous title King of Zhenjin (Chaste and Lofty)
Shiva Nataraja (Lord of the Dance)
c. 1100
India
Bronze
29.2
The Hindu god Shiva appears in several incarnations. Here, Shiva appears as Nataraja, or Lord of the Dance. He raises his left foot in a graceful dance pose. In his upper right hand, Nataraja holds a drum, the sound of which manifests creation. The flame that he holds in his upper left hand symbolizes destruction. Together, they symbolize the creation and destruction of the cosmic universe. The posture of the icon’s lower left and right palms signifies protection. The foot that rests on the demon’s back symbolizes the elimination of ignorance, while the raised left foot signifies salvation. A now missing ring of fire, symbolic of the simultaneous and continuous creation and destruction of the universe, would have encircled the bronze icon.
Somaskanda (Holy Family)
13th-14th century
India
Bronze
2009.12.2a-c
Shiva and his wife Uma sit next to each other on double lotus pedestals, between them a residual remnant of their small child, Skanda, now missing from the magnificent bronze. The standard format—known as Somaskanda—arose as early as the 6th century in temples from Tamil Nadu, and remains Shiva’s main manifest form today. In south Indian temples, bronze images play a huge role in devotional practice, where they are treated as living embodiments of the gods. The holes in the base indicate that this particular bronze would have been carried in processions outside the temple grounds. Priests dressed the gods in fine clothing, adorned them with flowers, and assembled an entourage of musicians and dancers to accompany them on a procession to bless the devotees who congregated along city streets.
Uma-Maheshvara
10th-11th century
India
Buff sandstone
97.36
This majestic relief was likely created for a temple dedicated to the Hindu god Shiva. Here, the multifaceted deity takes the role of ideal family man, resting in a posture of royal ease and affectionately embracing his wife and goddess, Uma, who embodies strength. Their union is a metaphor for the beginning of the universe. For Hindus, visiting a temple dedicated to their chosen deity allows the soul to commune with such intangible truths.
Temple sculpture also served to illustrate the various personalities and stories associated with Hindu gods. Here, the couple’s two sons, Skanda and the elephant-headed god Ganesha, stand beneath them on either side, and Shiva’s bull vehicle, Nandi, sits obediently at their feet. Meanwhile, Uma’s lion vehicle playfully battles with Nandi, a tender moment capturing the family’s shared affection. Above, two small temple shrines, housing images of the gods Brahma and Vishnu, replicate the exterior form of the temple in which this sculpture was originally installed.
Vajra Hammer
17th century
Tibet
Iron with silver and gilt
2000.99.1
A vajra hammer (skt. vajramudgara, Tbt. dorjey towa) symbolizes the relentless effectiveness of critical wisdom to smash ignorance and illusion. The hammer is often shown being carried by numerous deities and dharma protectors in Buddhist sculpture and painting, and it is used by the priesthood in esoteric rituals. It is employed, for instance, in the purification ceremony that preceeds a kalachaka initiation.
Vajra Warriors
Unknown Japanese
mid 14th century
Polychromed Japanese cypress (hinoki) with lacquer
83.76.1
Two vajra warriors (in Japanese, Kongō rikishi), better known as the Two Kings (Niō), guard the entrances of many Japanese Buddhist temples. Befitting their role as protectors of the dharma, or Buddhist law, they are ferocious, seminude figures with exaggerated musculature and facial expressions. The extreme realism of these figures was achieved through the yosegi technique of multiple-block construction, meaning they were carved in smaller sections and then assembled into the large figure.
Originally, both warriors would have been first covered in a layer of shiny black lacquer, and then colorfully painted. Years of exposure to the elements have revealed the carved cypress wood beneath. The shape of their mouths indicate that they are speaking the cosmic sounds of “ah” (open-mouthed) and “un.” These are the first and last letters of the Sanskrit alphabet, symbolizing the beginning and ending of all things, thus reminding us of the brevity of life.
Vajrabhairava
18th century
Tibet
Opaque colors and gold on cotton
89.52
This black-ground thangka would have guided an advanced practitioner in meditation focused on overcoming the fear of death. The central deity, Vajrabhairava, is depicted in his most ferocious form with numerous heads, including a water buffalo's as his central head. Each of his 32 arms bears a weapon and he tramples demons and Hindu gods underfoot. The image's ferocity was intended to protect the practitioner from their own fears and delusion when meditating on this difficult subject. Other protector deities surround Vajrabhairava, including the goddess Palden Lhamo on horseback at the bottom center, functioning to empower the practitioner. Five lineage gurus of the Gelugpa (yellow hat) order appear overhead, and the bodhisattva Manjushri is at the very center.
The theme of death is further conveyed by the grizzly setting, likely a cremation ground, where frightening creatures run amock and blood, guts, brains, and eyeballs appear in offering vessels.
War Stirrup
Unknown Artist
17th century
Japanese
Iron alloy with silver inlay
85.13.1
During the Edo period (1600-1868), only warriors of middle or high rank were permitted to own horses. Feudal lords and the shogun's guards used riding equipment ornamented in a manner appropriate to their social position. This pair of stirrups is sumptuously decorated with designs of blossoming wisteria. According to the inlaid inscription on each of the buckle-brackets, the stirrups were made by the metalsmith Kuniyuki, who worked in the town of Kanagawa in Kashu province (modern-day Ishikawa prefecture).
Wedding robe (uchikake) with design of standing curtains, maple trees, and large drum
Unknown Japanese
late 19th century
Silk with gold embroidery
2013.29.374
The owner of this robe wore her love of The Tale of Genji on her sleeve, so to speak. Instead of an illustration, however, the combination of nonfigural motifs on this robe represents a collective evocation of a specific moment from the Tale. In this case, maple trees and a large drum, along with standing curtains (a type of room divider) point to a scene early in the Tale in which 19-year-old Genji and a friend perform a dance in a palace garden beneath a maple tree. Genji’s youthful beauty and talent are so magnificent that his dancing partner is rendered inconsequential: “A nondescript mountain shrub beside a blossoming cherry,” as recounted in the Tale. The scene is also rife with unspoken emotions and drama. For starters, the performance has been organized by Genji’s father, the emperor, for the enjoyment of his pregnant wife, Genji’s stepmother. Unbeknownst to the emperor, she is carrying Genji’s child.
Yamantaka Mandala
Monks of the Gyuto Tantric University
1991
Colored silicate and adhesive on wood
Tibet
92.44
A mandala is a visual representation of the sacred Buddhist universe, which is used in meditation and initiation rites. The creation of a mandala is believed to benefit all beings, and the time and space it requires is consecrated through prayer, ritual music, and performance.
A team of monks-in residence created this colored sand mandala at the museum in 1991 over a period of four weeks. While sand mandalas are intended to be ephemeral, the MIA preserved it in order to honor the 1.2 million Tibetans who lost their lives to political-religious persecution during the 20th century.
The museum thanks the Tibetan American Foundation of Minnesota for bringing the Gyuto monks to Minnesota and for their efforts to preserve Tibetan cultural traditions.
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